And human pathogens [60], [61], [62]. It has been documented that melanin can increase antimicrobial resistance (see [63] for review) by Epigenetics reducing the susceptibility of melanized cells to antimicrobials [64], [65], [66] and increase virulence by interfering with numerous host defense mechanisms [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72] in many human pathogens. 25033180 In M. graminicola strain IPO323, Mehrabi et al. [59] found that disruption of MgSlt2 in M. graminicola led to a loss of melanization on potato dextrose agar, a loss of virulence and increased sensitivity to several fungicides including cyproconazole. Choi and Goodwin [60] also found that the velvet gene MVE1 is involved in the synthesis of melanin in M. graminicola. MVE1 mutants produced significantly less melanin. In Fusarium graminearum, deletion of the homologous velvet gene (FgVEA) reduced virulence and increased fungicide sensitivity [73].The finding of a positive association between pathogen virulence and tolerance to synthetic antimicrobials coupled with the knowledge that resistant plant hosts can select for higher pathogen virulence has many implications for sustainable disease management in agroecosystems. It suggests that one unforeseen consequence of widespread deployment of quantitatively resistant cultivars or intensive application of synthetic antimicrobials might be selection for a higher basal level of antimicrobial resistance and enhanced virulence in pathogen populations, which would pose a greater threat to agricultural production. In this case, more inhibitor dynamic disease management programs that incorporate more rapid spatial and temporal turnover of host resistance or synthetic antimicrobials may be important for sustainable disease control [74]. More rapid spatial and temporal turnover of host resistance or antimicrobials is expected to generate fluctuating selection against pathogens that could prevent the emergence of pathogen individuals and populations with higher virulence and antimicrobial resistance. However, the effectiveness of the proposed strategy for disease management depends largely on the fitness costs associated 1081537 with virulence or antimicrobial resistance. If there are no fitness costs, then there may be no benefit derived from spatial and temporal deployments of host resistance or antimicrobials.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: JZ BAM. Performed the experiments: JZ. Analyzed the data: LY FG LS JZ. Wrote the paper: LY FG LS JZ BAM.
The estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRa) is an orphan nuclear receptor involved in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis through the oxidation of fats and glucose [1?]. Recently, ERRa has also been considered as a switch regulating not only the mitochondrial function but also glycolysis so as to maintain a steady level of ATP production, particularly when mitochondrial biogenesis is decreased [4?]. ERRa binds to the ERR response element (ERRE) leading to the regulation of the cellular energy metabolism according to endogenous or exogenous stimuli [2,6,7]. This transcription factor may interfere with the three transcriptional coactivators of the PGC-1 family, i.e. the PPARc coactivator-1a (PGC-1a), the PPARc coactivator-1b (PGC-1b) and the PGC-1-related coactivator (PRC), all of which serve as mediators between the environment and the transcriptional machinery. PGC-1a and PGC-1b are mainly associated with the modulation of metabolic pathways in tissues that require high oxidative energy production.And human pathogens [60], [61], [62]. It has been documented that melanin can increase antimicrobial resistance (see [63] for review) by reducing the susceptibility of melanized cells to antimicrobials [64], [65], [66] and increase virulence by interfering with numerous host defense mechanisms [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72] in many human pathogens. 25033180 In M. graminicola strain IPO323, Mehrabi et al. [59] found that disruption of MgSlt2 in M. graminicola led to a loss of melanization on potato dextrose agar, a loss of virulence and increased sensitivity to several fungicides including cyproconazole. Choi and Goodwin [60] also found that the velvet gene MVE1 is involved in the synthesis of melanin in M. graminicola. MVE1 mutants produced significantly less melanin. In Fusarium graminearum, deletion of the homologous velvet gene (FgVEA) reduced virulence and increased fungicide sensitivity [73].The finding of a positive association between pathogen virulence and tolerance to synthetic antimicrobials coupled with the knowledge that resistant plant hosts can select for higher pathogen virulence has many implications for sustainable disease management in agroecosystems. It suggests that one unforeseen consequence of widespread deployment of quantitatively resistant cultivars or intensive application of synthetic antimicrobials might be selection for a higher basal level of antimicrobial resistance and enhanced virulence in pathogen populations, which would pose a greater threat to agricultural production. In this case, more dynamic disease management programs that incorporate more rapid spatial and temporal turnover of host resistance or synthetic antimicrobials may be important for sustainable disease control [74]. More rapid spatial and temporal turnover of host resistance or antimicrobials is expected to generate fluctuating selection against pathogens that could prevent the emergence of pathogen individuals and populations with higher virulence and antimicrobial resistance. However, the effectiveness of the proposed strategy for disease management depends largely on the fitness costs associated 1081537 with virulence or antimicrobial resistance. If there are no fitness costs, then there may be no benefit derived from spatial and temporal deployments of host resistance or antimicrobials.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: JZ BAM. Performed the experiments: JZ. Analyzed the data: LY FG LS JZ. Wrote the paper: LY FG LS JZ BAM.
The estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRa) is an orphan nuclear receptor involved in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis through the oxidation of fats and glucose [1?]. Recently, ERRa has also been considered as a switch regulating not only the mitochondrial function but also glycolysis so as to maintain a steady level of ATP production, particularly when mitochondrial biogenesis is decreased [4?]. ERRa binds to the ERR response element (ERRE) leading to the regulation of the cellular energy metabolism according to endogenous or exogenous stimuli [2,6,7]. This transcription factor may interfere with the three transcriptional coactivators of the PGC-1 family, i.e. the PPARc coactivator-1a (PGC-1a), the PPARc coactivator-1b (PGC-1b) and the PGC-1-related coactivator (PRC), all of which serve as mediators between the environment and the transcriptional machinery. PGC-1a and PGC-1b are mainly associated with the modulation of metabolic pathways in tissues that require high oxidative energy production.