Y gender, marital status, socioeconomic status, and race/ethnicity.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptA Life Course FrameworkResearch on parenthood, parenting, and wellbeing is comprised of two largely separate literatures, one focusing on the effects of parenthood and young children on well-being during early to middle adulthood and the other focusing on the effects of parenthood and adult children on well-being during middle to late adulthood. We suggest that a life course perspective be used to integrate these two bodies of work. These literatures can inform one another in ways that advance future research and theory on parenthood and well-being. Early parenting experiences do not become irrelevant to parents’ well-being after children grow up. Rather, early life course experiences have long-term implications for well-being throughout middle and later life (Ha, Hong, Seltzer, Greenberg, 2008). A life course perspective directs attention to continuity and change in well-being over the life course and suggests how parenthood and the “linked lives” of parents and children influence trajectories of change in well-being over time (Thonzonium (bromide) web Milkie, Bierman, Schieman, 2008). A life course perspective also takes inequality into account by emphasizing that individuals vary in their exposure to stressors and resources throughout life. Differential exposure to environmental risks and resources around parenthood can produce increasing disadvantage for the wellbeing of some and increasing advantage for others (Kendig, Dykstra, van Gaalen, Melkas, 2007). This approach recognizes human agency and resilience as well as heterogeneity in relationships and life course experiences. Thus, individual choice and a sense of personal control in making decisions about parenthood may play an important role in shaping the effects of parenthood on well-being (Keeton, Perry-Jenkins, Sayer, 2008). We surveyed leading family journals in sociology, psychology, and gerontology and reviewed articles pertaining to any order AZD-8835 aspect of parenthood or parenting in relation to a measure of well-being. We also reviewed books that addressed this topic. Because of space constraints and a voluminous literature, the present review is selective but also comprehensive in identifying major strands in recent research. Major findings and themes from the past decade are discussed in four broad areas: (a) childlessness, (b) transition to parenthood, (c) minor children, and (d) adult children.Childlessness and Well-BeingAlthough recent research focuses primarily on the effects of parenting on the well-being of different types of parents, there remains an underlying assumption that being a parent, compared to remaining childless, influences well-being. Recent decades have witnessed a trend toward increased childlessness and delayed childbearing. In 1975, 15.6 of women age 30 ?34 and 10.5 of women between 35 and 39 were childless. These percentages rose to 28 and 20 , respectively, in 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Not surprisingly, interest in the psychological implications of childlessness has also increased. Recent studies suggest that parents of minor children are more distressed than their childless counterparts (e.g., Nomaguchi Milkie, 2003). In contrast, parents of adult children report levels of distress and well-being that are similar to those of the childless (Evenson Simon, 2005; Pudrovska, 2008). Both types of effects depend on the soci.Y gender, marital status, socioeconomic status, and race/ethnicity.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptA Life Course FrameworkResearch on parenthood, parenting, and wellbeing is comprised of two largely separate literatures, one focusing on the effects of parenthood and young children on well-being during early to middle adulthood and the other focusing on the effects of parenthood and adult children on well-being during middle to late adulthood. We suggest that a life course perspective be used to integrate these two bodies of work. These literatures can inform one another in ways that advance future research and theory on parenthood and well-being. Early parenting experiences do not become irrelevant to parents’ well-being after children grow up. Rather, early life course experiences have long-term implications for well-being throughout middle and later life (Ha, Hong, Seltzer, Greenberg, 2008). A life course perspective directs attention to continuity and change in well-being over the life course and suggests how parenthood and the “linked lives” of parents and children influence trajectories of change in well-being over time (Milkie, Bierman, Schieman, 2008). A life course perspective also takes inequality into account by emphasizing that individuals vary in their exposure to stressors and resources throughout life. Differential exposure to environmental risks and resources around parenthood can produce increasing disadvantage for the wellbeing of some and increasing advantage for others (Kendig, Dykstra, van Gaalen, Melkas, 2007). This approach recognizes human agency and resilience as well as heterogeneity in relationships and life course experiences. Thus, individual choice and a sense of personal control in making decisions about parenthood may play an important role in shaping the effects of parenthood on well-being (Keeton, Perry-Jenkins, Sayer, 2008). We surveyed leading family journals in sociology, psychology, and gerontology and reviewed articles pertaining to any aspect of parenthood or parenting in relation to a measure of well-being. We also reviewed books that addressed this topic. Because of space constraints and a voluminous literature, the present review is selective but also comprehensive in identifying major strands in recent research. Major findings and themes from the past decade are discussed in four broad areas: (a) childlessness, (b) transition to parenthood, (c) minor children, and (d) adult children.Childlessness and Well-BeingAlthough recent research focuses primarily on the effects of parenting on the well-being of different types of parents, there remains an underlying assumption that being a parent, compared to remaining childless, influences well-being. Recent decades have witnessed a trend toward increased childlessness and delayed childbearing. In 1975, 15.6 of women age 30 ?34 and 10.5 of women between 35 and 39 were childless. These percentages rose to 28 and 20 , respectively, in 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Not surprisingly, interest in the psychological implications of childlessness has also increased. Recent studies suggest that parents of minor children are more distressed than their childless counterparts (e.g., Nomaguchi Milkie, 2003). In contrast, parents of adult children report levels of distress and well-being that are similar to those of the childless (Evenson Simon, 2005; Pudrovska, 2008). Both types of effects depend on the soci.