Re than half a million specimens of wild-caught Lepidoptera caterpillars have been reared for their parasitoids, identified, and DNA barcoded over a period of 34 years (and ongoing) from Area de Conservaci de Guanacaste (ACG), northwestern Costa Rica. This provides the world’s best location-based dataset for studying the taxonomy and host relationships of caterpillar parasitoids. Among Hymenoptera, Microgastrinae (Braconidae) is the most diverse and commonly encountered parasitoid subfamily, with many hundreds of species delineated to date, almost all undescribed. Here, we reassess the limits of the genus Serabelisib clinical trials Apanteles sensu stricto, describe 186 new species from 3,200+ parasitized caterpillars of hundreds of ACG Lepidoptera species, and provide keys to all 205 described Apanteles from Mesoamerica ncluding 19 previously described species in addition to the new species. The Mesoamerican Apanteles are assigned to 32 species-groups, all but two of which are newly defined. Taxonomic keys are presented in two formats: traditional dichotomous print versions and links to electronic interactive versions (software Lucid 3.5). Numerous illustrations, I-BRD9MedChemExpress I-BRD9 computer-generated descriptions, distributional information, wasp biology, and DNA barcodes (where available) are presented for every species. All morphological terms are detailed and linked to the Hymenoptera Anatomy Ontology website. DNA barcodes (a standard fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) mitochondrial gene), information on wasp biology (host records, solitary/ gregariousness of wasp larvae), ratios of morphological features, and wasp microecological distributions were used to help clarify boundaries between morphologically cryptic species within species-complexes. Because of the high accuracy of host identification for about 80 of the wasp species studied, it was possible to analyze host relationships at a regional level. The ACG species of Apanteles attack mainly species of Hesperiidae, Elachistidae and Crambidae (Lepidoptera). About 90 of the wasp species with known host records seem to be monophagous or oligophagous at some level, parasitizing just one host family and commonly, just one species of caterpillar. Only 15 species (9 ) parasitize species in more than one family, and some of these cases are likely to be found to be species complexes. We have used several information sources and techniques (traditional taxonomy, molecular, software-based, biology, and geography) to accelerate the process of finding and describing these new species in a hyperdiverse group such as Apanteles. The following new taxonomic and nomenclatural acts are proposed. Four species previously considered to be Apanteles are transferred to other microgastrine genera: Dolichogenidea hedyleptae (Muesebeck, 1958), comb. n., Dolichogenidea politiventris (Muesebeck, 1958), comb. n., Rhygoplitis sanctivincenti (Ashmead, 1900), comb. n., and Illidops scutellaris (Muesebeck, 1921), comb. rev. One European species that is a secondary homonym to a Mesoamerican species is removed from Apanteles and transferred to another genus: Iconella albinervis (Tobias, 1964), stat. rev. The name Apanteles albinervican Shenefelt, 1972, is an invalid replacement name for Apanteles albinervis (Cameron, 1904), stat. rev., and thus the later name is reinstated as valid. The following 186 species, all in Apanteles and all authored by Fern dez-Triana, are described as species nova: adelinamoralesae, adrianachavarriae, adrianaguilarae,.Re than half a million specimens of wild-caught Lepidoptera caterpillars have been reared for their parasitoids, identified, and DNA barcoded over a period of 34 years (and ongoing) from Area de Conservaci de Guanacaste (ACG), northwestern Costa Rica. This provides the world’s best location-based dataset for studying the taxonomy and host relationships of caterpillar parasitoids. Among Hymenoptera, Microgastrinae (Braconidae) is the most diverse and commonly encountered parasitoid subfamily, with many hundreds of species delineated to date, almost all undescribed. Here, we reassess the limits of the genus Apanteles sensu stricto, describe 186 new species from 3,200+ parasitized caterpillars of hundreds of ACG Lepidoptera species, and provide keys to all 205 described Apanteles from Mesoamerica ncluding 19 previously described species in addition to the new species. The Mesoamerican Apanteles are assigned to 32 species-groups, all but two of which are newly defined. Taxonomic keys are presented in two formats: traditional dichotomous print versions and links to electronic interactive versions (software Lucid 3.5). Numerous illustrations, computer-generated descriptions, distributional information, wasp biology, and DNA barcodes (where available) are presented for every species. All morphological terms are detailed and linked to the Hymenoptera Anatomy Ontology website. DNA barcodes (a standard fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) mitochondrial gene), information on wasp biology (host records, solitary/ gregariousness of wasp larvae), ratios of morphological features, and wasp microecological distributions were used to help clarify boundaries between morphologically cryptic species within species-complexes. Because of the high accuracy of host identification for about 80 of the wasp species studied, it was possible to analyze host relationships at a regional level. The ACG species of Apanteles attack mainly species of Hesperiidae, Elachistidae and Crambidae (Lepidoptera). About 90 of the wasp species with known host records seem to be monophagous or oligophagous at some level, parasitizing just one host family and commonly, just one species of caterpillar. Only 15 species (9 ) parasitize species in more than one family, and some of these cases are likely to be found to be species complexes. We have used several information sources and techniques (traditional taxonomy, molecular, software-based, biology, and geography) to accelerate the process of finding and describing these new species in a hyperdiverse group such as Apanteles. The following new taxonomic and nomenclatural acts are proposed. Four species previously considered to be Apanteles are transferred to other microgastrine genera: Dolichogenidea hedyleptae (Muesebeck, 1958), comb. n., Dolichogenidea politiventris (Muesebeck, 1958), comb. n., Rhygoplitis sanctivincenti (Ashmead, 1900), comb. n., and Illidops scutellaris (Muesebeck, 1921), comb. rev. One European species that is a secondary homonym to a Mesoamerican species is removed from Apanteles and transferred to another genus: Iconella albinervis (Tobias, 1964), stat. rev. The name Apanteles albinervican Shenefelt, 1972, is an invalid replacement name for Apanteles albinervis (Cameron, 1904), stat. rev., and thus the later name is reinstated as valid. The following 186 species, all in Apanteles and all authored by Fern dez-Triana, are described as species nova: adelinamoralesae, adrianachavarriae, adrianaguilarae,.

Challenge how values, social difference, and power affect our interaction with others and our experience of the world.7. Methods for Teaching Students AOPMethods for teaching student nurses about AOP can be simple but need to be multidimensional and take into account the institutions, structures, processes, and policies which shape health care environments as well as the patient experience and the experience of the nurse. An understanding of how health policy is formulated and reflects the choices and decisions made by governments about resource allocation is essential. Nurse’s critiques of practice need to engage with the political contexts which shape caring interactions. To understand dimensions that influence power relations in health, Student’s also need to have a fundamental grasp of the key sociological concepts such as class, race, sexuality, gender, age, and disability which influence the form and nature of social institutions. A number of authors have suggested that nurses have historically been focused on understanding and caring for individuals rather than communities and social groups; therefore, nursing curricula should focus on broadening student political participation [33, 34]. However, how these more abstract concepts are social constructed and embedded in our day-to-day experiences can be a difficult concept to demonstrate. It is difficult to understand how health services, cultures, and processes may fail to meet the needs of patients because sometimes the effects of these inequalities may not be evident. Simple vignettes that illustrate a variety of everyday patient/s experiences of care can form the basis for a reflective exercise which enables students to see the simple interactions between nurses and patients that can be oppressive. Seemingly simple nurse, patient interactions such as not listening to patient’s requests, talking over patients, and not prioritisingDisclosureThe paper is based on one the author presented at the STTI conference in Gothenburg in June and was one of three papers presented for a workshop which considered the projects themes and interests of The European Academy of Caring Science.Conflict of InterestsThe author declares that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Sir LOR-253 web Robinson [1] calls for a revolution in education founded on three principles: diversity, order AZD0156 curiosity, and creativity. He suggests that we in education need to create a broad curriculum that is open to diversity where students are free to be creative and awaken their imaginations and where teachers facilitate learning rather than seeking compliance. Similarly, Thomas and Seely Brown [2] challenge educators to explore how one’s passion can deepen learning. We could not agree more. A learning revolution is critical for higher education, and we propose that complexity thinking, with a focus on emergence, may liberate education to support meaningful changes in teaching-learning. Concepts affiliated with complexity thinking inform the “how to” bring about a learning revolution where diversity, curiosity, passion, and creativity are at the fore. For example, complexity curriculum concepts such as Doll’s 4 Rs (richness, recursion, relations, and rigor) [3, 4] and the notion of perturbation [5] can open students to the edge of their abilities rather than facilitating or making easy their experience; it is through perturbation that students’ thinking grows [6, p. 33]. Diversity, emergence, curiosity,.Challenge how values, social difference, and power affect our interaction with others and our experience of the world.7. Methods for Teaching Students AOPMethods for teaching student nurses about AOP can be simple but need to be multidimensional and take into account the institutions, structures, processes, and policies which shape health care environments as well as the patient experience and the experience of the nurse. An understanding of how health policy is formulated and reflects the choices and decisions made by governments about resource allocation is essential. Nurse’s critiques of practice need to engage with the political contexts which shape caring interactions. To understand dimensions that influence power relations in health, Student’s also need to have a fundamental grasp of the key sociological concepts such as class, race, sexuality, gender, age, and disability which influence the form and nature of social institutions. A number of authors have suggested that nurses have historically been focused on understanding and caring for individuals rather than communities and social groups; therefore, nursing curricula should focus on broadening student political participation [33, 34]. However, how these more abstract concepts are social constructed and embedded in our day-to-day experiences can be a difficult concept to demonstrate. It is difficult to understand how health services, cultures, and processes may fail to meet the needs of patients because sometimes the effects of these inequalities may not be evident. Simple vignettes that illustrate a variety of everyday patient/s experiences of care can form the basis for a reflective exercise which enables students to see the simple interactions between nurses and patients that can be oppressive. Seemingly simple nurse, patient interactions such as not listening to patient’s requests, talking over patients, and not prioritisingDisclosureThe paper is based on one the author presented at the STTI conference in Gothenburg in June and was one of three papers presented for a workshop which considered the projects themes and interests of The European Academy of Caring Science.Conflict of InterestsThe author declares that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Sir Robinson [1] calls for a revolution in education founded on three principles: diversity, curiosity, and creativity. He suggests that we in education need to create a broad curriculum that is open to diversity where students are free to be creative and awaken their imaginations and where teachers facilitate learning rather than seeking compliance. Similarly, Thomas and Seely Brown [2] challenge educators to explore how one’s passion can deepen learning. We could not agree more. A learning revolution is critical for higher education, and we propose that complexity thinking, with a focus on emergence, may liberate education to support meaningful changes in teaching-learning. Concepts affiliated with complexity thinking inform the “how to” bring about a learning revolution where diversity, curiosity, passion, and creativity are at the fore. For example, complexity curriculum concepts such as Doll’s 4 Rs (richness, recursion, relations, and rigor) [3, 4] and the notion of perturbation [5] can open students to the edge of their abilities rather than facilitating or making easy their experience; it is through perturbation that students’ thinking grows [6, p. 33]. Diversity, emergence, curiosity,.

Nd, sometimes, privatisation (Mosley et al., 1990; Birdsall and James, 1993). Over the last fifteen years, the Bank has shown less interest in chronic disease and development, leaving the WHO and other organisations like the NCD Alliance and The Lancet to take the lead in this field (Weisz, 2014b). As mentioned at the start of this introduction, the numerous reports, action plans and scientific papers published by these organisations have further consolidated and propagated the ideas of NCDs as a development issue. Of course, these organisations have brought some of their own concepts and idiosyncrasies ?like the WHO’s addition of a reworked and weakened notion of PHC ?to the way they frame this issue. But, overall, the way they conceive chronic diseases in the Tenapanor web global South is strongly influenced by the analyses and ideas articulated by the World Bank’s experts during the 1980s and 1990s. To illustrate, most of the documents on the topic published by these organisations share the Bank’s understanding that the relationship between NCDs and development is a two-way process, with economic growth generating unhealthy lifestyles and reducing chronic disease prevalence critical to improving productivity (e.g. WHO, 2010; UNDP, 2013). Likewise, most of these documents, echoing the Bank, express the significance of the NCD epidemic in the global South through rigorous epidemiological data and emphasise the importance of using cost-effective health interventions and public-private partnerships (e.g. Lim et al., 2007; WHO, 2013).3. Chronic diseases and the politics of care A focus on problematisation is, of course, not the only critical approach that can be used to make sense of current efforts to tackle NCDs in the global South. Another, important lens through which to explore these efforts is a critique characterised by a concern with social justice and human rights (Benatar et al., 2003; Benatar, 2005; Kleinman, 2010; Venkatapuram, 2010). This frame points to the political importance of care to the ways in which we approach NCDs across a number of domains. Specifically, the invocation of social justice and human rights acts as a critique of current BMS-986020 web approaches to NCDs in two ways. First, of the global health community’s selective deployment of the tools, techniques, funds and interventions that permits the care of people. Second, of the ability of the state to ensure the adequate care of its citizens. If the first critique calls the contemporary architecture of global health into question (Farmer et al., 2013; Garrett, 2013), then the second scrutinises the ability of this architecture to deliver sustainable, effective and equitable health improvements on the ground (Benatar, 2005; Venkatapuram, 2010). The politics of NCDs in the global South are thus bound into and directly shaped by the nature, delivery and critique of care by a variety of actors. The ability and will to care, in turn, is shaped by the complex, multi-scalar politics and resource flows that condition so much of the global health enterprise. Care implies a need for empathy, responsibility and duty just as much as it does the fair distribution of medical services and resources and the capacity to access and make use of these (Kearns and Reid-Henry, 2009). It is therefore an essential ?if under-acknowledged ?component of the politics of NCDs in countries of the global South. The capacity to care is constrained by a number of factors that warrant further scrutiny. In the first plac.Nd, sometimes, privatisation (Mosley et al., 1990; Birdsall and James, 1993). Over the last fifteen years, the Bank has shown less interest in chronic disease and development, leaving the WHO and other organisations like the NCD Alliance and The Lancet to take the lead in this field (Weisz, 2014b). As mentioned at the start of this introduction, the numerous reports, action plans and scientific papers published by these organisations have further consolidated and propagated the ideas of NCDs as a development issue. Of course, these organisations have brought some of their own concepts and idiosyncrasies ?like the WHO’s addition of a reworked and weakened notion of PHC ?to the way they frame this issue. But, overall, the way they conceive chronic diseases in the global South is strongly influenced by the analyses and ideas articulated by the World Bank’s experts during the 1980s and 1990s. To illustrate, most of the documents on the topic published by these organisations share the Bank’s understanding that the relationship between NCDs and development is a two-way process, with economic growth generating unhealthy lifestyles and reducing chronic disease prevalence critical to improving productivity (e.g. WHO, 2010; UNDP, 2013). Likewise, most of these documents, echoing the Bank, express the significance of the NCD epidemic in the global South through rigorous epidemiological data and emphasise the importance of using cost-effective health interventions and public-private partnerships (e.g. Lim et al., 2007; WHO, 2013).3. Chronic diseases and the politics of care A focus on problematisation is, of course, not the only critical approach that can be used to make sense of current efforts to tackle NCDs in the global South. Another, important lens through which to explore these efforts is a critique characterised by a concern with social justice and human rights (Benatar et al., 2003; Benatar, 2005; Kleinman, 2010; Venkatapuram, 2010). This frame points to the political importance of care to the ways in which we approach NCDs across a number of domains. Specifically, the invocation of social justice and human rights acts as a critique of current approaches to NCDs in two ways. First, of the global health community’s selective deployment of the tools, techniques, funds and interventions that permits the care of people. Second, of the ability of the state to ensure the adequate care of its citizens. If the first critique calls the contemporary architecture of global health into question (Farmer et al., 2013; Garrett, 2013), then the second scrutinises the ability of this architecture to deliver sustainable, effective and equitable health improvements on the ground (Benatar, 2005; Venkatapuram, 2010). The politics of NCDs in the global South are thus bound into and directly shaped by the nature, delivery and critique of care by a variety of actors. The ability and will to care, in turn, is shaped by the complex, multi-scalar politics and resource flows that condition so much of the global health enterprise. Care implies a need for empathy, responsibility and duty just as much as it does the fair distribution of medical services and resources and the capacity to access and make use of these (Kearns and Reid-Henry, 2009). It is therefore an essential ?if under-acknowledged ?component of the politics of NCDs in countries of the global South. The capacity to care is constrained by a number of factors that warrant further scrutiny. In the first plac.

S ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0120882 March 31,12 /A QVD-OPH custom synthesis Generic Model of Dyadic Social Relationshipsas well as between A and C. If however one knows of the groups and applies our model to the X high-level agents G1 and G2, one observes G1 ! G2 and interprets it as an EM relationshipXbetween the two groups. This example motivates to identify the relevant social units in the data set under study. This may be achieved by measuring the number and/or duration of interactions between all pairs of individuals and thus creating a weighted graph. By choosing a threshold for the weight of the links, one may be able to isolate social units. Our model would then apply to pairs of members of the same social unit, as well as to pairs of social units.Valuing the action fluxesOur fluxes representation reflects only the presence or absence of fluxes, without saying anything about the quantities involved. The amount carried by an action flux can be readily measured when the action consists in the transfer of a physical item for which a unit of measure can easily be agreed upon. Valuing an action in general is not straightforward. The average time or physical effort necessary to perform the action can be measured (or simply intuitively approximated), but it is naturally much harder to quantitatively agree on a possible emotional or intellectual value. We propose that a value function does not need to be identical for each agent, and each agent does not need to possess a fixed, deterministic value function. For our present needs, it is sufficient for each agent to have personal notions of the value of the social actions performed by herself and others. These personal scales may be probabilistic, in the sense that the value they return may follow WP1066 site probability distributions. Correspondingly, decisions may be probabilistic, as suggested by Quantum Decision Theory [29, 30]. Alternatively, a value function could be a von Neumann-Morgenstern utility [31], a subjective cumulative prospect utility [32], or any other value function capturing different forms of happiness or contentment, as in the theory of utilitarianism [33]. We hypothesize that, in a population of interacting agents evolving under selective pressure, the action fluxes of our model converge toward equilibria characterized by an equality in value between opposite fluxes. This proposition rests on the idea that unequal fluxes disadvantage at least one party. They are thus likely to jeopardize the relationship in the short term (in case of inequity aversion), and hinder the survival or reproductive success of the disadvantaged party in the long run. Hence, both individual optimization and selection pressure from external forces in the environment should drive interactions toward stable equilibria characterized by value equalities. We expect these equilibria to depend upon initial conditions and previous states. In other words, different societies would estimate that different things or actions have equal values. Let us now examine this suggestion in relation to RMT. MP requires a formal matching agreement stating the respective values of what is exchanged, whether actions (such as work), commodities or symbolic items (e.g. money). In EM, the things exchanged are not only of the same nature, but also of the same value. Thus, the idea of value equalities is already embedded into the definitions of these two RMs. RMT keeps CS and AR apart by stating that these RMs are not supposed to necessitate any kind.S ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0120882 March 31,12 /A Generic Model of Dyadic Social Relationshipsas well as between A and C. If however one knows of the groups and applies our model to the X high-level agents G1 and G2, one observes G1 ! G2 and interprets it as an EM relationshipXbetween the two groups. This example motivates to identify the relevant social units in the data set under study. This may be achieved by measuring the number and/or duration of interactions between all pairs of individuals and thus creating a weighted graph. By choosing a threshold for the weight of the links, one may be able to isolate social units. Our model would then apply to pairs of members of the same social unit, as well as to pairs of social units.Valuing the action fluxesOur fluxes representation reflects only the presence or absence of fluxes, without saying anything about the quantities involved. The amount carried by an action flux can be readily measured when the action consists in the transfer of a physical item for which a unit of measure can easily be agreed upon. Valuing an action in general is not straightforward. The average time or physical effort necessary to perform the action can be measured (or simply intuitively approximated), but it is naturally much harder to quantitatively agree on a possible emotional or intellectual value. We propose that a value function does not need to be identical for each agent, and each agent does not need to possess a fixed, deterministic value function. For our present needs, it is sufficient for each agent to have personal notions of the value of the social actions performed by herself and others. These personal scales may be probabilistic, in the sense that the value they return may follow probability distributions. Correspondingly, decisions may be probabilistic, as suggested by Quantum Decision Theory [29, 30]. Alternatively, a value function could be a von Neumann-Morgenstern utility [31], a subjective cumulative prospect utility [32], or any other value function capturing different forms of happiness or contentment, as in the theory of utilitarianism [33]. We hypothesize that, in a population of interacting agents evolving under selective pressure, the action fluxes of our model converge toward equilibria characterized by an equality in value between opposite fluxes. This proposition rests on the idea that unequal fluxes disadvantage at least one party. They are thus likely to jeopardize the relationship in the short term (in case of inequity aversion), and hinder the survival or reproductive success of the disadvantaged party in the long run. Hence, both individual optimization and selection pressure from external forces in the environment should drive interactions toward stable equilibria characterized by value equalities. We expect these equilibria to depend upon initial conditions and previous states. In other words, different societies would estimate that different things or actions have equal values. Let us now examine this suggestion in relation to RMT. MP requires a formal matching agreement stating the respective values of what is exchanged, whether actions (such as work), commodities or symbolic items (e.g. money). In EM, the things exchanged are not only of the same nature, but also of the same value. Thus, the idea of value equalities is already embedded into the definitions of these two RMs. RMT keeps CS and AR apart by stating that these RMs are not supposed to necessitate any kind.

Der and have boarding facilities. Between 50 and 95 of students reside at the schools, which have separate dormitories and sanitary installations for boys and girls. One school had a particular religious affiliation (school 3: Muslim). In another, which was later excluded, the mailbox technique was not correctly implemented (Table 1). The secondary-education system in Rwanda is divided into two parts. In lower secondary, the first three years, students all follow the same programme. During higher-secondary education, the final three years, different study sections are offered. The age of the students in secondary education ranges from 12 to 30 years and even older. The median age of students in the last year of secondary education in the schools included in this study is 21 years (IQR of all students in the six schools ?17 ?20 years).Originally, we intended to use a diary method, in which young people could write about their experiences and thoughts concerning sexuality or relational issues over a certain period. However, as the majority of secondary-school pupils in Rwanda attend boarding schools where there are no safe spaces to store personal writings, privacy could not be guaranteed. Therefore, we sought a way in which young people could freely and voluntarily express their ideas on paper in a secure and private setting. The idea of a mailbox emerged, which offered the advantages of anonymity and spontaneity. Six secondary schools were given a mailbox and asked to install it in a place with a large passage of students, away from signs of authority such as the principal’s office. The mailboxes were locked and the keys kept by the principal investigator. Instructions were attached to the mailbox and the students received detailed buy HM61713, BI 1482694 information on the objectives of the study in a school assembly. It was emphasized that only the researchers would read the letters and that participation was voluntary. The following instructions were placed on the mailbox (translated into the local language Kinyarwanda): What’s your story? To better inform young people about relationships and sexuality, we must understand what they really think about these issues. What are your experiences with relationships and sexuality and what are your ideas, secrets, wishes, desires, fears . . . on these topics? In order to share your stories and ideas anonymously, we invite you to write them and then post them in this mailbox. We will collect the letters on [date specified]. We thank you for your story! This message was followed by practical information, such as telling the students they could write in any language and on any topic concerning sexuality. The information was also circulated via a letter to the students. Mailboxes were given to the six schools in March 2009. When returning to the schools three months later, we found that two schools had not installed the mailbox; in Y-27632MedChemExpress Y-27632 another school the lock had been stolen. The three other schools did hang the boxes, but on two of them the instructions had disappeared. We collected 25 letters, of which 14 letters had low relevance describing complaints about internal school issues, such as canteen food. After analysing the remaining letters and discussing the poor results, it was decided to reattempt the study. In SeptemberTable 1.Participating schools.Boarding school or not Boarding school Education offered Lower- and highersecondary education Lowersecondary education Highersecondary education Lower- and highersecondar.Der and have boarding facilities. Between 50 and 95 of students reside at the schools, which have separate dormitories and sanitary installations for boys and girls. One school had a particular religious affiliation (school 3: Muslim). In another, which was later excluded, the mailbox technique was not correctly implemented (Table 1). The secondary-education system in Rwanda is divided into two parts. In lower secondary, the first three years, students all follow the same programme. During higher-secondary education, the final three years, different study sections are offered. The age of the students in secondary education ranges from 12 to 30 years and even older. The median age of students in the last year of secondary education in the schools included in this study is 21 years (IQR of all students in the six schools ?17 ?20 years).Originally, we intended to use a diary method, in which young people could write about their experiences and thoughts concerning sexuality or relational issues over a certain period. However, as the majority of secondary-school pupils in Rwanda attend boarding schools where there are no safe spaces to store personal writings, privacy could not be guaranteed. Therefore, we sought a way in which young people could freely and voluntarily express their ideas on paper in a secure and private setting. The idea of a mailbox emerged, which offered the advantages of anonymity and spontaneity. Six secondary schools were given a mailbox and asked to install it in a place with a large passage of students, away from signs of authority such as the principal’s office. The mailboxes were locked and the keys kept by the principal investigator. Instructions were attached to the mailbox and the students received detailed information on the objectives of the study in a school assembly. It was emphasized that only the researchers would read the letters and that participation was voluntary. The following instructions were placed on the mailbox (translated into the local language Kinyarwanda): What’s your story? To better inform young people about relationships and sexuality, we must understand what they really think about these issues. What are your experiences with relationships and sexuality and what are your ideas, secrets, wishes, desires, fears . . . on these topics? In order to share your stories and ideas anonymously, we invite you to write them and then post them in this mailbox. We will collect the letters on [date specified]. We thank you for your story! This message was followed by practical information, such as telling the students they could write in any language and on any topic concerning sexuality. The information was also circulated via a letter to the students. Mailboxes were given to the six schools in March 2009. When returning to the schools three months later, we found that two schools had not installed the mailbox; in another school the lock had been stolen. The three other schools did hang the boxes, but on two of them the instructions had disappeared. We collected 25 letters, of which 14 letters had low relevance describing complaints about internal school issues, such as canteen food. After analysing the remaining letters and discussing the poor results, it was decided to reattempt the study. In SeptemberTable 1.Participating schools.Boarding school or not Boarding school Education offered Lower- and highersecondary education Lowersecondary education Highersecondary education Lower- and highersecondar.

Ing clients with use from the World wide web to find information [2]. This alliance between veterinarians and librarians is really a all-natural extension in the connection that presently exists amongst librarians and medical providers for humans. The challenge of incorporating programs like info prescriptions into health care environments involves the have to have for collaboration amongst librarians, educators, and overall health care providers [6]. That is equally accurate for the field of veterinary medicine. The present study was developed to assess the influence on veterinary clients’ behaviors of receiving an details prescription as element of their veterinary workplace visits. An all-encompassing veterinary overall health web-site was applied as the details prescription for the initial study reported here, and clientele have been surveyed on their reactions to the prescription. A subsequent study will assess distinct overall health information prescriptions, similar towards the extra classic definition employed in human medicine. Solutions Customers of participating veterinary clinics received a letter describing the informed consent procedure and an information and facts prescription as element of their visits. They have been then subsequently surveyed on their reactions and responses towards the data prescription. Participating clinics Participants were drawn from a random sample of veterinary clinics from a Western US metropolitan region and surrounding cities. A random sample of clinics was made by deciding on every fifth small, mixed, or exotic animal practice listed within the regional telephone directory. Most little animal veterinarians have at least 1 employees member (i.e., receptionist) who checks consumers in and out and oversees the completion of paperwork. These people distributed the consent forms within the existing study. Substantial animal and ambulatory veterinarians frequently do not have more support personnel present, and as a result, participating within this study would have produced more effort on their part not directly related to their delivery of veterinary medicine. Because of this, this study focused on smaller animal veterinarians together with the intention of broadening the sample to incorporate substantial and ambulatory veterinarians in future research. All of the target veterinary clinics were asked to participate in this study for 3 months. The total quantity of clinics contacted for participation was 32,of which 17 agreed to participate. Of those, two clinics had been subsequently eliminated from the study because they did not actually distribute the PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452415 information to their customers. Every clinic was asked to distribute 300 cover letters and consent types to all clients till the types were depleted (to get a total of four,500 letters and consent forms). Each and every clinic was contacted monthly to verify in, send extra forms if necessary, and PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor 2 address any issues with the study. Clinics varied tremendously in how regularly they distributed the types. Numerous clinics did not don’t forget to routinely distribute the types. Therefore, it was not feasible to track the exact percentage of customers who had been asked to participate but chose to decline. All clients visiting participating veterinary clinics had been offered a cover letter with a consent type explaining that the clinic was assessing various forms of solutions provided to clients and inviting clients to complete a follow-up survey asking them to report on their experiences throughout their veterinary visits. The consent kind asked for the clients’ contact info and their preferences for survey access (mail or.

Ing clients with use with the Online to find facts [2]. This alliance amongst veterinarians and librarians is actually a all-natural extension in the relationship that at present exists in between librarians and healthcare providers for humans. The challenge of incorporating applications like facts prescriptions into wellness care environments includes the need to have for collaboration among librarians, educators, and overall health care providers [6]. That is equally accurate for the field of veterinary medicine. The present study was made to assess the effect on veterinary clients’ behaviors of getting an information and facts prescription as part of their veterinary workplace visits. An all-encompassing veterinary overall health internet site was utilized because the info prescription for the initial study reported right here, and customers have been surveyed on their reactions towards the prescription. A subsequent study will assess certain health facts prescriptions, equivalent towards the extra regular definition employed in human medicine. Procedures Clients of participating veterinary clinics received a letter describing the informed buy CFI-402257 consent procedure and an info prescription as element of their visits. They had been then subsequently surveyed on their reactions and responses for the info prescription. Participating clinics Participants were drawn from a random sample of veterinary clinics from a Western US metropolitan region and surrounding cities. A random sample of clinics was designed by picking every fifth tiny, mixed, or exotic animal practice listed inside the local phone directory. Most tiny animal veterinarians have a minimum of one particular staff member (i.e., receptionist) who checks clients in and out and oversees the completion of paperwork. These men and women distributed the consent forms inside the present study. Substantial animal and ambulatory veterinarians usually don’t have added help personnel present, and hence, participating in this study would have made extra work on their element not directly associated with their delivery of veterinary medicine. Because of this, this study focused on little animal veterinarians together with the intention of broadening the sample to involve big and ambulatory veterinarians in future studies. All the target veterinary clinics were asked to take part in this study for three months. The total number of clinics contacted for participation was 32,of which 17 agreed to participate. Of those, 2 clinics were subsequently eliminated in the study because they didn’t essentially distribute the PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452415 info to their consumers. Each clinic was asked to distribute 300 cover letters and consent types to all customers until the types were depleted (to get a total of 4,500 letters and consent forms). Each and every clinic was contacted month-to-month to check in, send far more forms if required, and address any complications together with the study. Clinics varied tremendously in how routinely they distributed the forms. Several clinics didn’t recall to often distribute the forms. Consequently, it was not achievable to track the exact percentage of customers who have been asked to participate but chose to decline. All consumers visiting participating veterinary clinics have been provided a cover letter using a consent form explaining that the clinic was assessing a number of kinds of services supplied to consumers and inviting consumers to finish a follow-up survey asking them to report on their experiences during their veterinary visits. The consent form asked for the clients’ make contact with info and their preferences for survey access (mail or.

. [60] have used both anaesthesia techniques. GA, general anaesthesia. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156448.gPLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0156448 May 26,31 /Anaesthesia Management for Awake Craniotomyintraoperative seizures and their consequences [10,17?9,31?9,42?4,47,49?5,57?0,62]. The total number of Mitochondrial division inhibitor 1 site performed AC procedures in these studies was 4942 and 351 (7.1 ) intraoperative seizures were reported (Table 4). Only twenty-three (0.5 ) intraoperative seizures led to a failure of AC, but they were resolved without any serious problems and the surgery was continued in GA [33,34,42,43,55,57]. Interestingly, the AAA technique showed a high proportion of eight seizures in fifty AC procedures, but only one led to AC failure due to required PD98059MedChemExpress PD98059 intubation [33]. Intraoperative seizures were more common in younger patients and those with a history of seizures [31,42]. A meta-analysis was performed for thirty-four studies, [10,17?6,28,29,32,34?39,43,47,49?5,57?0,62], which used the MAC and SAS technique, excluding the duplicate studies from Tel Aviv [31,42] and Glostrup [27,44]. Meta-analysis showed an estimated proportion of seizures of 8 [95 CI: 6?1] with substantial heterogeneity between studies (I2 = 75 ) (Fig 4). In the meta-regression analysis, the techniques used did not explain the differences in the studies (QM < 0.001, df = 1, p = 0.983). The OR comparing SAS to MAC technique was 1.01 [CI95 : 0.52?.88]. Postoperative neurological dysfunction (new/ late). Description of particular postoperative neurological dysfunctions differed significantly in the included studies. Therefore we have subsumed all kinds of new neurological dysfunctions under these superordinate two outcome variables. Of note, we did not include data of patients with deterioration of a pre-existing neurological dysfunction. Twenty-nine studies [10,18,19,23,24,28,29,31,33?5,37,38,40?43,48,49,51?5,57?9,61,62] reported new postoperative neurological dysfunctions after 565 (14.0 ) of totally 4029 AC procedures. A later follow up result (six months) was provided for 279 of these patients with new neurological dysfunction. It showed a persistent neurological dysfunction in 64 patients. Of note, late neurological outcome after six months was reported in only seventeen studies comprising 2085 AC procedures in total. Considering twenty-six studies [10,18,19,23,24,28,29,34,35,37,38,40,41,43,48,49,51?5,57?9,61,62], which were reasonable included in our meta-analysis, the proportion of new neurological dysfunction was estimated to be 17 [95 CI: 12?3], with a high heterogeneity (I2 = 90 ) (Fig 5). Meta-regression analysis did not reveal a difference depending on the anaesthesia technique (MAC/ SAS) (QM = 1.52, df = 1, p = 0.217), with an OR of 1.66 [95 CI: 1.35?.70]. Furthermore, there is a large proportion of residual heterogeneity (QE = 187.55, df = 24, p < .0001), which cannot be explained by the applied anaesthesia technique. However, it has to be noted that there are only six studies available in the SAS group. Other adverse events/outcomes. The other extracted adverse events and outcome data are shown in Tables 4 and 5. Mortality was very low with 10 patients (0.2 ) of all forty-four studies comprising 5381 patients, which reported the outcome variable mortality (Table 5). Of note, two deaths include probably duplicate patients [42,43] to the study of Grossman et al. [31]. Furthermore, we have only included deaths within 30 days after surgery in this analysis. Interestingly.. [60] have used both anaesthesia techniques. GA, general anaesthesia. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156448.gPLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0156448 May 26,31 /Anaesthesia Management for Awake Craniotomyintraoperative seizures and their consequences [10,17?9,31?9,42?4,47,49?5,57?0,62]. The total number of performed AC procedures in these studies was 4942 and 351 (7.1 ) intraoperative seizures were reported (Table 4). Only twenty-three (0.5 ) intraoperative seizures led to a failure of AC, but they were resolved without any serious problems and the surgery was continued in GA [33,34,42,43,55,57]. Interestingly, the AAA technique showed a high proportion of eight seizures in fifty AC procedures, but only one led to AC failure due to required intubation [33]. Intraoperative seizures were more common in younger patients and those with a history of seizures [31,42]. A meta-analysis was performed for thirty-four studies, [10,17?6,28,29,32,34?39,43,47,49?5,57?0,62], which used the MAC and SAS technique, excluding the duplicate studies from Tel Aviv [31,42] and Glostrup [27,44]. Meta-analysis showed an estimated proportion of seizures of 8 [95 CI: 6?1] with substantial heterogeneity between studies (I2 = 75 ) (Fig 4). In the meta-regression analysis, the techniques used did not explain the differences in the studies (QM < 0.001, df = 1, p = 0.983). The OR comparing SAS to MAC technique was 1.01 [CI95 : 0.52?.88]. Postoperative neurological dysfunction (new/ late). Description of particular postoperative neurological dysfunctions differed significantly in the included studies. Therefore we have subsumed all kinds of new neurological dysfunctions under these superordinate two outcome variables. Of note, we did not include data of patients with deterioration of a pre-existing neurological dysfunction. Twenty-nine studies [10,18,19,23,24,28,29,31,33?5,37,38,40?43,48,49,51?5,57?9,61,62] reported new postoperative neurological dysfunctions after 565 (14.0 ) of totally 4029 AC procedures. A later follow up result (six months) was provided for 279 of these patients with new neurological dysfunction. It showed a persistent neurological dysfunction in 64 patients. Of note, late neurological outcome after six months was reported in only seventeen studies comprising 2085 AC procedures in total. Considering twenty-six studies [10,18,19,23,24,28,29,34,35,37,38,40,41,43,48,49,51?5,57?9,61,62], which were reasonable included in our meta-analysis, the proportion of new neurological dysfunction was estimated to be 17 [95 CI: 12?3], with a high heterogeneity (I2 = 90 ) (Fig 5). Meta-regression analysis did not reveal a difference depending on the anaesthesia technique (MAC/ SAS) (QM = 1.52, df = 1, p = 0.217), with an OR of 1.66 [95 CI: 1.35?.70]. Furthermore, there is a large proportion of residual heterogeneity (QE = 187.55, df = 24, p < .0001), which cannot be explained by the applied anaesthesia technique. However, it has to be noted that there are only six studies available in the SAS group. Other adverse events/outcomes. The other extracted adverse events and outcome data are shown in Tables 4 and 5. Mortality was very low with 10 patients (0.2 ) of all forty-four studies comprising 5381 patients, which reported the outcome variable mortality (Table 5). Of note, two deaths include probably duplicate patients [42,43] to the study of Grossman et al. [31]. Furthermore, we have only included deaths within 30 days after surgery in this analysis. Interestingly.

Nt manifestations and for post-treatment persistence of B. burgdorferi in mice. The results demonstrate that, indeed, the infection of mice with a B. burgdorferi strain that expresses both DbpA and B adhesins enables such progression of the infection that leads to arthritis development and post-treatment persistence. Results of our immunosuppression experiments suggest that the persisting material in the joints of mice infected with DbpA and B expressing bacteria and treated with ceftriaxone is DNA or DNA containing remnants rather than live bacteria.Materials and Methods B. burgdorferi strainsThe study was conducted using previously characterized B. burgdorferi strains [16]. dbpAB knock out strain, dbpAB/E22/1 (dbpAB), the DbpA and B expressing strain, dbpAB/ dbpAB/2 (dbpAB/dbpAB), the DbpA expressing strain, dbpAB/dbpA/1 (dbpAB/dbpA), and the DbpB expressing strain, dbpAB/dbpB/1 (dbpAB/dbpB) in B. burgdorferi B31 5A13 background are identical in all other aspects of their genetic composition but differ in the ability to express DbpA and/or B. The spirochetes were ABT-737 chemical information cultivated in Barbour-Stoenner-Kelly II (BSK II)PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0121512 March 27,2 /DbpA and B Promote Arthritis and Post-Treatment Persistence in Micemedium containing kanamycin (200 g/ml, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and gentamycin (50 g/ml, Biological Industries, Beit-Haemek, Israel) at 33 . The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ceftriaxone was determined by culturing dbpAB/dbpAB and dbpAB in two-fold dilutions of the antibiotic in BSK II medium covering a concentration range of 0.5?.002 g/ml. Dark-field microscopy was used to detect the growth of the bacteria.Ethics StatementThis study was carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Finnish Act on the Use of Animals for Experimental Purposes of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland. The protocol was approved by the National Animal Experiment Board in Finland (permission number STH619A). All efforts were done to minimize suffering of the animals.Experimental designFour weeks old female C3H/HeNhsd (C3H/He) mice (Harlan, Netherlands) were infected with 106 dbpAB/dbpAB (40 mice), dbpAB/dbpA (8 mice), dbpAB/dbpB (8 mice) or dbpAB (38 mice) bacteria by intradermal syringe inoculation in the lower back. Twelve control animals were injected with an equal volume of PBS. In experiment I (Fig. 1), four animals were infected with dbpAB/dbpAB (group 2), eight with dbpAB/dbpA (group 3), eight with dbpAB/dbpB (group 4), and two with dbpAB (group 5). Two uninfected animals (group 1) were negative controls. The development of joint manifestations was monitored by measuring the medio-lateral diameter of the hind tibiotarsal joints once a week. The Imatinib (Mesylate)MedChemExpress CGP-57148B measurer was blinded to the group’s identity. The mice were killed at seven weeks of infection. Tissue samples from ear, bladder and hind tibiotarsal joint were collected for culture. In experiment II, 20 animals were infected with dbpAB/dbpAB (groups 7, 9 and 11) and 20 animals with dbpAB (groups 8, 10 and 12). Two uninfected animals (group 6) were negative controls. Sixteen animals (groups 9 and 10) were treated with ceftriaxone and 16 animals (groups 11 and 12) with ceftriaxone and anti-TNF-alpha. The ceftriaxone treatment was started at two weeks and the anti-TNF-alpha treatment at seven weeks of infection. Ceftriaxone (Rocephalin1, Roche, Mannheim, Germany) was administered twice a day 25 mg/kg intraperitoneally for five days.Nt manifestations and for post-treatment persistence of B. burgdorferi in mice. The results demonstrate that, indeed, the infection of mice with a B. burgdorferi strain that expresses both DbpA and B adhesins enables such progression of the infection that leads to arthritis development and post-treatment persistence. Results of our immunosuppression experiments suggest that the persisting material in the joints of mice infected with DbpA and B expressing bacteria and treated with ceftriaxone is DNA or DNA containing remnants rather than live bacteria.Materials and Methods B. burgdorferi strainsThe study was conducted using previously characterized B. burgdorferi strains [16]. dbpAB knock out strain, dbpAB/E22/1 (dbpAB), the DbpA and B expressing strain, dbpAB/ dbpAB/2 (dbpAB/dbpAB), the DbpA expressing strain, dbpAB/dbpA/1 (dbpAB/dbpA), and the DbpB expressing strain, dbpAB/dbpB/1 (dbpAB/dbpB) in B. burgdorferi B31 5A13 background are identical in all other aspects of their genetic composition but differ in the ability to express DbpA and/or B. The spirochetes were cultivated in Barbour-Stoenner-Kelly II (BSK II)PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0121512 March 27,2 /DbpA and B Promote Arthritis and Post-Treatment Persistence in Micemedium containing kanamycin (200 g/ml, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and gentamycin (50 g/ml, Biological Industries, Beit-Haemek, Israel) at 33 . The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ceftriaxone was determined by culturing dbpAB/dbpAB and dbpAB in two-fold dilutions of the antibiotic in BSK II medium covering a concentration range of 0.5?.002 g/ml. Dark-field microscopy was used to detect the growth of the bacteria.Ethics StatementThis study was carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Finnish Act on the Use of Animals for Experimental Purposes of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland. The protocol was approved by the National Animal Experiment Board in Finland (permission number STH619A). All efforts were done to minimize suffering of the animals.Experimental designFour weeks old female C3H/HeNhsd (C3H/He) mice (Harlan, Netherlands) were infected with 106 dbpAB/dbpAB (40 mice), dbpAB/dbpA (8 mice), dbpAB/dbpB (8 mice) or dbpAB (38 mice) bacteria by intradermal syringe inoculation in the lower back. Twelve control animals were injected with an equal volume of PBS. In experiment I (Fig. 1), four animals were infected with dbpAB/dbpAB (group 2), eight with dbpAB/dbpA (group 3), eight with dbpAB/dbpB (group 4), and two with dbpAB (group 5). Two uninfected animals (group 1) were negative controls. The development of joint manifestations was monitored by measuring the medio-lateral diameter of the hind tibiotarsal joints once a week. The measurer was blinded to the group’s identity. The mice were killed at seven weeks of infection. Tissue samples from ear, bladder and hind tibiotarsal joint were collected for culture. In experiment II, 20 animals were infected with dbpAB/dbpAB (groups 7, 9 and 11) and 20 animals with dbpAB (groups 8, 10 and 12). Two uninfected animals (group 6) were negative controls. Sixteen animals (groups 9 and 10) were treated with ceftriaxone and 16 animals (groups 11 and 12) with ceftriaxone and anti-TNF-alpha. The ceftriaxone treatment was started at two weeks and the anti-TNF-alpha treatment at seven weeks of infection. Ceftriaxone (Rocephalin1, Roche, Mannheim, Germany) was administered twice a day 25 mg/kg intraperitoneally for five days.

Her subjects make selfish or pro-social moral choices. Together, these results reveal not only differential neural mechanisms for real and hypothetical moral decisions but also that the nature of real moral decisions can be predicted by dissociable networks within the PFC.Keywords: real moral decision-making; fMRI; amygdala; TPJ; ACCINTRODUCTION Psychology has a long tradition demonstrating a fundamental difference between how people believe they will act and how they actually act in the real world (Milgram, 1963; Higgins, 1987). Recent research (Ajzen et al., 2004; Kang et al., 2011; Teper et al., 2011) has confirmed this intention ehavior discrepancy, AG-221 web revealing that people inaccurately predict their future actions because hypothetical decision-making requires mental simulations that are abbreviated, unrepresentative and decontextualized (Gilbert and Wilson, 2007). This `hypothetical bias’ effect (Kang et al., 2011) has routinely demonstrated that the influence of socio-emotional factors and tangible risk (Wilson et al., 2000) is relatively diluted in hypothetical decisions: not only do hypothetical moral probes lack the tension engendered by competing, real-world emotional choices but also they fail to elicit expectations of consequencesboth of which are endemic to real moral reasoning (Krebs et al., 1997). In fact, research has shown that when real contextual pressures and their associated consequences come into play, people can behave in characteristically immoral ways (Baumgartner et al., 2009; Greene and Paxton, 2009). Although there is also important work examining the neural basis of the opposite behavioral findingaltruistic decision-making (Moll et al., 2006)the neural networks underlying the conflicting motivation of maximizing self-gain at the expense of another are still poorly understood. Studying the neural architecture of this form of moral tension is particularly compelling because monetary incentives to behave immorally are pervasive throughout societypeople frequently cheat on their loved ones, steal from their employers or harm others for monetary gain. Moreover, we reasoned that any behavioral and neural disparities between real and hypothetical moral reasoning will likely have the sharpest focus when two fundamental proscriptionsdo not harm others and do not over-benefit the self at the expense of others (Haidt, 2007)are directly pitted against one another. In other words, we speculated that this prototypical moral conflict would provide an ideal test-bed to examine the behavioral and neural differences between intentions and actions.Received 18 April 2012; Accepted 8 June 2012 Advance Access publication 18 June 2012 Correspondence should be addressed to Oriel FeldmanHall, MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK. E-mail: [email protected], we used a `your pain, my gain’ (PvG) laboratory task (Feldmanhall et al., 2012) to operationalize this core choice between personal advantage and another’s welfare: subjects were probed about their willingness to receive money (up to ?00) by physically harming (via electric stimulations) another subject (Figure 1A). The juxtaposition of these two conflicting motivations requires balancing selfish needs against the get RG7800 notion of `doing the right thing’ (Blair, 2007). We carried out a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment using the PvG task to first explore if real moral behavior mirrors hypothetical in.Her subjects make selfish or pro-social moral choices. Together, these results reveal not only differential neural mechanisms for real and hypothetical moral decisions but also that the nature of real moral decisions can be predicted by dissociable networks within the PFC.Keywords: real moral decision-making; fMRI; amygdala; TPJ; ACCINTRODUCTION Psychology has a long tradition demonstrating a fundamental difference between how people believe they will act and how they actually act in the real world (Milgram, 1963; Higgins, 1987). Recent research (Ajzen et al., 2004; Kang et al., 2011; Teper et al., 2011) has confirmed this intention ehavior discrepancy, revealing that people inaccurately predict their future actions because hypothetical decision-making requires mental simulations that are abbreviated, unrepresentative and decontextualized (Gilbert and Wilson, 2007). This `hypothetical bias’ effect (Kang et al., 2011) has routinely demonstrated that the influence of socio-emotional factors and tangible risk (Wilson et al., 2000) is relatively diluted in hypothetical decisions: not only do hypothetical moral probes lack the tension engendered by competing, real-world emotional choices but also they fail to elicit expectations of consequencesboth of which are endemic to real moral reasoning (Krebs et al., 1997). In fact, research has shown that when real contextual pressures and their associated consequences come into play, people can behave in characteristically immoral ways (Baumgartner et al., 2009; Greene and Paxton, 2009). Although there is also important work examining the neural basis of the opposite behavioral findingaltruistic decision-making (Moll et al., 2006)the neural networks underlying the conflicting motivation of maximizing self-gain at the expense of another are still poorly understood. Studying the neural architecture of this form of moral tension is particularly compelling because monetary incentives to behave immorally are pervasive throughout societypeople frequently cheat on their loved ones, steal from their employers or harm others for monetary gain. Moreover, we reasoned that any behavioral and neural disparities between real and hypothetical moral reasoning will likely have the sharpest focus when two fundamental proscriptionsdo not harm others and do not over-benefit the self at the expense of others (Haidt, 2007)are directly pitted against one another. In other words, we speculated that this prototypical moral conflict would provide an ideal test-bed to examine the behavioral and neural differences between intentions and actions.Received 18 April 2012; Accepted 8 June 2012 Advance Access publication 18 June 2012 Correspondence should be addressed to Oriel FeldmanHall, MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK. E-mail: [email protected], we used a `your pain, my gain’ (PvG) laboratory task (Feldmanhall et al., 2012) to operationalize this core choice between personal advantage and another’s welfare: subjects were probed about their willingness to receive money (up to ?00) by physically harming (via electric stimulations) another subject (Figure 1A). The juxtaposition of these two conflicting motivations requires balancing selfish needs against the notion of `doing the right thing’ (Blair, 2007). We carried out a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment using the PvG task to first explore if real moral behavior mirrors hypothetical in.