Ometric bead array inflam-Figure 4. Concentration of A) cytokine and B) chemokine proteins measured in cervicovaginal secretions of RM. All samples were collected between menstrual cycle days 10?0 from 19?2 RM at Time point 2. Bars denote median and interquartile range. Note that if an assay produced a concentration of an analyte below the minimum quantifiable level, a value of zero was assigned and no data points for that sample appears in the graphs. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052992.gCervicovaginal Inflammation in Rhesus MacaquesTable 1. Prevalence of Bacteria Genera in Rhesus macaques.networks was done using the advanced network merge 317318-84-6 chemical information function in Cytoscape.Time 1 (N = 29) GenusTime 2 (N = 35) sequences Freq. 97 54 46 77 49 33 57 60 34 43 49 71 14 9Results The mRNA of Many Inflammatory Mediators is Readily 25033180 Detectable in Cervicovaginal Secretions of most RMOf the 15 molecules assessed in the first set of CVS samples collected from 36 rhesus macaques in March 2011 (Time point 1), the mRNA levels of 12 molecules (IFN-a, PKR, RIG-I, IL-17, VISA, OAS CXCL10, TNF, IL-6, IL-12, MIG and IFN-c) were higher than the GAPDH mRNA levels (dCT.0) in every sample (Figure 1). However, the mRNA levels of MIP-1a and MIP-1b were less than the level of GAPDH mRNA (dCT,0) in most CVS samples (Figure 1). Although the mRNA of most inflammatory molecules tested was elevated, there was a range of 5 – .10 dCT between the samples for all target mRNA (Figure 1). This indicates a wide variation in the expression levels of inflammatory mediators among the animals because a difference of 3 dCT between samples P7C3 chemical information corresponds to a 10 fold difference in mRNA concentration. In the CVS samples collected 8 months later in November 2011 (Time point 2), the mRNA levels of the 9 inflammatory mediators assessed were similar to those found in the Time point 1 CVS samples (Figures 1 and 2). The mRNA levels of proinflammatory mediators (TNF, IL-6, MIP-1a or MIP1b IFNa and MIG) assessed at both time points in 25 animals were compared (Figure 2). Only 2? of the 25 animals had a 10-fold difference in the expression levels of TNF, IL-6, MIP-1a or MIP1b IFNa, MIG (Figure 2). Thus, based on mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines in CVS, the degree of cervicovaginal inflammation in captive rhesus macaques spans a broad range from minimal to severe but the level of inflammation in an individual animal is stable at least over an 8-month period. Correlation network analysis of mRNA levels of the different host genes at Time point 1 (March 2011) showed strong (.0.7 coefficient) positive independent correlations between TNF mRNA levels and MIP1a and MIP1b mRNA levels (Figure 3a).sequencesa Freq.b Genus 93 76 62 69 41 83 83 79 52 34 59 7 28 38Porphyromonas 17 Prevotella Sneathia 14Porphyromonas 26 Proteiniphilum 8 Sneathia Mobiluncus Prevotella Atopobium Anaerovorax 8 7 5 4Proteiniphilum 6 CatonellaCampylobacter 4 Peptoniphilus Mobiluncus Anaerovorax Ignavigranum Dialister Lactobacillus Exilispira Allisonella 4 3 3 2 2 2 2Anaerosphaera 3 Catonella Soehngenia Parvimonas Peptoniphilus Gardnerella Lactobacillus Butyricicoccus 3 3 3 2 2 2AnaerosphaeraaAverage of sequences. Percent of macaques with .1 of sequences corresponding to this genus. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052992.tbStatistical AnalysisThe microbiome features, cytokines and chemokines were correlated using a Spearman’s correlation function and then filtered for correlations .0.70 and p,0.05. These correlates were calculated using a c.Ometric bead array inflam-Figure 4. Concentration of A) cytokine and B) chemokine proteins measured in cervicovaginal secretions of RM. All samples were collected between menstrual cycle days 10?0 from 19?2 RM at Time point 2. Bars denote median and interquartile range. Note that if an assay produced a concentration of an analyte below the minimum quantifiable level, a value of zero was assigned and no data points for that sample appears in the graphs. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052992.gCervicovaginal Inflammation in Rhesus MacaquesTable 1. Prevalence of Bacteria Genera in Rhesus macaques.networks was done using the advanced network merge function in Cytoscape.Time 1 (N = 29) GenusTime 2 (N = 35) sequences Freq. 97 54 46 77 49 33 57 60 34 43 49 71 14 9Results The mRNA of Many Inflammatory Mediators is Readily 25033180 Detectable in Cervicovaginal Secretions of most RMOf the 15 molecules assessed in the first set of CVS samples collected from 36 rhesus macaques in March 2011 (Time point 1), the mRNA levels of 12 molecules (IFN-a, PKR, RIG-I, IL-17, VISA, OAS CXCL10, TNF, IL-6, IL-12, MIG and IFN-c) were higher than the GAPDH mRNA levels (dCT.0) in every sample (Figure 1). However, the mRNA levels of MIP-1a and MIP-1b were less than the level of GAPDH mRNA (dCT,0) in most CVS samples (Figure 1). Although the mRNA of most inflammatory molecules tested was elevated, there was a range of 5 – .10 dCT between the samples for all target mRNA (Figure 1). This indicates a wide variation in the expression levels of inflammatory mediators among the animals because a difference of 3 dCT between samples corresponds to a 10 fold difference in mRNA concentration. In the CVS samples collected 8 months later in November 2011 (Time point 2), the mRNA levels of the 9 inflammatory mediators assessed were similar to those found in the Time point 1 CVS samples (Figures 1 and 2). The mRNA levels of proinflammatory mediators (TNF, IL-6, MIP-1a or MIP1b IFNa and MIG) assessed at both time points in 25 animals were compared (Figure 2). Only 2? of the 25 animals had a 10-fold difference in the expression levels of TNF, IL-6, MIP-1a or MIP1b IFNa, MIG (Figure 2). Thus, based on mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines in CVS, the degree of cervicovaginal inflammation in captive rhesus macaques spans a broad range from minimal to severe but the level of inflammation in an individual animal is stable at least over an 8-month period. Correlation network analysis of mRNA levels of the different host genes at Time point 1 (March 2011) showed strong (.0.7 coefficient) positive independent correlations between TNF mRNA levels and MIP1a and MIP1b mRNA levels (Figure 3a).sequencesa Freq.b Genus 93 76 62 69 41 83 83 79 52 34 59 7 28 38Porphyromonas 17 Prevotella Sneathia 14Porphyromonas 26 Proteiniphilum 8 Sneathia Mobiluncus Prevotella Atopobium Anaerovorax 8 7 5 4Proteiniphilum 6 CatonellaCampylobacter 4 Peptoniphilus Mobiluncus Anaerovorax Ignavigranum Dialister Lactobacillus Exilispira Allisonella 4 3 3 2 2 2 2Anaerosphaera 3 Catonella Soehngenia Parvimonas Peptoniphilus Gardnerella Lactobacillus Butyricicoccus 3 3 3 2 2 2AnaerosphaeraaAverage of sequences. Percent of macaques with .1 of sequences corresponding to this genus. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052992.tbStatistical AnalysisThe microbiome features, cytokines and chemokines were correlated using a Spearman’s correlation function and then filtered for correlations .0.70 and p,0.05. These correlates were calculated using a c.